Tso-hsin Cheng: The Father of Chinese Ornithology

This article is the fourth in a series about “The Pioneers“, the naturalists in 19th and early 20th century China who shone a light on China’s natural heritage.  

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For decades, the study of China’s natural wonders was a story written by outsiders – European missionaries, consuls, and customs officers who ventured into the country’s interior and sent their discoveries back to museums in Paris, London, and Berlin. But it was a soft-spoken scholar from Fuzhou, a man who earned his PhD from the University of Michigan at just 23 years old, who would fundamentally transform Chinese ornithology. Tso-hsin Cheng (郑作新, 1906–1998) did not merely study China’s birds – he reclaimed the study of them for China itself, becoming the founder of modern ornithology and zoogeography in his homeland.

The Boy Who Would Be a Bird

Tso-hsin Cheng was born in Fuzhou, Fujian Province, on 18 November, 1906. When he was only five years old, his mother died. His father, employed in the salt administration, was away from home year-round, and the task of raising young Tso-hsin fell to his grandmother.

There is a charming story from this time.

In the evenings, as Tso-hsin’s grandmother worked by lamplight, she would tell him stories. The one he loved best was an ancient myth from the classic Chinese text Shanhai jing (Chinese: 山海经), a compilation of mythic geography and beasts that may have existed since the 4th century BCE.  “Jingwei Determines to Fill the Sea” tells the story of a bird in Chinese mythology, who was transformed from the Flame Emperor’s daughter Nüwa after she drowned when playing in the Eastern Sea. She metamorphosed into a bird called Jingwei. Jingwei is determined to fill up the sea, so she continuously carries a pebble or twig in her mouth and drops it into the Eastern Sea. In the story, Jingwei has a dialogue with the sea where the sea scoffs at her, saying that she won’t be able to fill it up “even in a million years”, whereupon she retorts that she will spend ten million years, even one hundred million years, whatever it takes to fill up the sea so that others would not have to perish as she did. “Unceasingly the bird carried, unceasingly it worked,” his grandmother would say. “Tell me, wasn’t the Jingwei bird’s determination immense? Its perseverance immense?” Tso-hsin listened, transfixed.

One evening, after hearing the story yet again, young Tso-hsin looked up at his grandmother with tears in his eyes and said, “When I grow up, I want to be a Jingwei bird too.” His grandmother nodded, threading her needle. “Whatever you do in life,” she told him, “you must press forward like the Jingwei bird, overcoming every obstacle with unyielding determination”. The boy nodded solemnly and helped his grandmother thread her needle when her eyes grew dim.

From that day, something changed in him. He would not stop his schoolwork until it was finished. He would not rest until the water jar was filled. The Jingwei bird’s spirit had taken root.

From Fujian to Michigan and Back

Cheng Tso-hsin’s intellectual gifts emerged early. In 1926, he graduated from Fujian Christian University (later Fujian Normal University) and, in the same year, sailed for the United States of America to pursue advanced study. He enrolled at the University of Michigan, earning a master’s degree in 1927 and a PhD in 1930 – at the astonishing age of 23. The university awarded him its prestigious “science key” in recognition of his achievements.

America offered bright prospects. Yet Cheng made a decision that would define his life’s work: he rejected lucrative offers and returned to China. He took up a professorship at his alma mater, Fujian Christian University, where he would teach for the next two decades, serving as chair of the biology department, then dean of the College of Sciences, and eventually academic dean.

Building a Foundation in Chinese

Upon his return, Cheng confronted a stark reality: there was almost no biological literature available in Chinese. The foundational texts, the laboratory guides, the taxonomic references – all were in Western languages, inaccessible to most Chinese students. So Cheng set about creating them himself.

Between 1933 and 1938, he wrote University Laboratory Exercises in Zoology, Vertebrate Taxonomy, and General Biology entirely in Chinese. These became standard texts in universities across the country. He also founded the Fujian Christian University Biological Bulletin in 1938, providing an outlet for Chinese-language research. This was not merely translation work; it was intellectual nation-building – creating, almost from scratch, the vocabulary and conceptual framework for Chinese biologists to work in their own language.

The Shaowu Years: China’s First Field Ornithology

While building an academic program, Cheng also built a research agenda. From 1938 to 1941, despite limited funding, he led students on systematic field surveys in the mountains around Shaowu in northwestern Fujian. This was groundbreaking work: the first sustained, quantitative study of wild bird populations conducted by Chinese scientists. Cheng documented not merely which species occurred there, but their relative abundance, seasonal movements, and breeding status.

The result, “A Report for Three Years’ Field Survey of Birds in Shaowu,” published in 1941, was a landmark. It demonstrated that Chinese scientists could conduct ornithological research at the highest level, and it laid the foundation for everything that followed.

Claiming the Checklist

In 1945, Cheng was invited back to the United States as a visiting professor by the State Department’s cultural division. He used the opportunity to visit major American museums, examining their Chinese bird collections and consulting with curators. When he returned to China in 1946, he brought back not just knowledge, but a mission.

In 1947, Cheng published two papers that would reshape the field. The first was the “Checklist of Chinese Birds” in the Transactions of the Chinese Association for the Advancement of Science. It listed 1,087 species and 912 subspecies – the first comprehensive checklist compiled by a Chinese ornithologist. The second was “On the Geographical Distribution of Birds in China,” which proposed a new framework for understanding avian zoogeography.

Drawing the Line: China’s Zoogeographical Regions

Cheng’s distribution paper was revolutionary. He divided China’s avifauna into two great zoogeographical realms – the Oriental realm of the tropics and subtropics, and the Palearctic realm of the temperate north – and proposed a boundary between them. This line began at the eastern edge of the Himalayas, followed the Qinling Mountains, continued along the Dabie Mountains, crossed the Yangtze River, and ended in the hills of Fujian and Zhejiang.

This was not merely an academic exercise. Understanding where species occur and why has profound implications for conservation, evolutionary biology, and biogeography. In 1956, Cheng and his colleague Zhang Rongzu refined this framework, publishing the first comprehensive scheme for China’s zoogeographical regions: two realms, seven regions, and sixteen subregions. The Qinling Mountains, they argued, formed the true boundary between north and south – a revision of earlier schemes that had placed the divide at the Nanling Mountains. This regionalisation has been recognised worldwide as a fundamental framework for understanding China’s biodiversity.

The Sparrow Controversy

Cheng’s scientific judgment was not confined to academic journals. In the 1950s, during the Great Leap Forward, the Chinese government launched a campaign to eliminate pests, including sparrows, which were blamed for consuming grain. Millions of people were mobilised to bang drums, wave flags, and chase the terrified birds until they dropped from exhaustion.

Cheng spoke out. At a meeting of the China Zoological Society, he argued that the situation was more complex: although sparrows did eat grain in winter, during the breeding season sparrows fed their nestlings insects – many of them agricultural pests. The goal should not be extermination, but control of harm. He and his colleagues conducted field research and published their findings in the People’s Daily and other newspapers. The campaign was eventually called off, though not before immense ecological damage had been done. It was a rare example of scientific evidence influencing policy during a tumultuous era.

A Lifetime of Systematics

Over his long career, Cheng and his colleagues described 16 new subspecies of birds. He studied the evolution and phylogeny of pheasants, laughing thrushes, and other groups. His work on the silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera) was particularly notable: comparing the distribution and morphological variation of 14 subspecies, he found that more primitive forms occurred at the periphery of the range, not the centre. He proposed a “competitive exclusion” hypothesis to explain this pattern, an idea consistent with Darwinian concepts of species competition.

In 1978, Cheng led the publication of the first volume of the Avian Fauna Sinica, a monumental series that would eventually cover the birds of China in exhaustive detail. He edited multiple volumes himself and served as deputy editor-in-chief of the entire Fauna Sinica project. His 1987 work, A Synopsis of the Avifauna of China, published simultaneously in Beijing and Hamburg, was an encyclopaedic monograph covering 1,186 species, with detailed information on nomenclature, distribution, habitat, and population status for each. It is regarded as one of the classics of world ornithological literature.

Cheng Tso-hsin’s 1987 “A Synopsis of the Avifauna of China”

Honours and Recognition

The scientific world took note. In 1980, Cheng was elected a member of Academia Sinica (now the Chinese Academy of Sciences). In 1988, the National Wildlife Federation of the United States awarded him its “Special Conservation Achievement Award” – the first time the organisation had honoured a scientist outside America. The citation praised him as “the outstanding leader in the field of Chinese ornithological research, whose extensive knowledge has attracted worldwide attention”.

Cheng Tso-Hsin (second from right) was awarded the “Special Conservation Achievement Award” by the National Wildlife Federation of the United States in 1988 (Photo credit: National Wildlife Federation).

He served as vice-president, president, and lifetime honorary president of the World Pheasant Association; as a consultant to the International Crane Foundation; and as honorary chairman of the 22nd International Ornithological Conference. He was a founder of both the China Zoological Society (1934) and the China Ornithological Society (1980), serving as the latter’s first chairman. He received China’s National Natural Science Award, the Chinese Academy of Sciences Natural Science Award, and numerous other honours.

A Lasting Legacy

In 1994, Cheng donated his prize money to establish the “Cheng Foundation for Ornithological Science” to encourage young scholars to pursue careers in ornithology. To date, 28 awardees have been honoured, and many have become leading ornithologists in China and internationally.

Cheng passed away in Beijing on June 27, 1998, at the age of 91. But his name lives on in an unexpected way. In 2015, an international team of scientists led by Per Alström and Lei Fumin described a new bird species from the mountains of central China. It was a small, brown warbler with a buzzy, insect-like song – the very bird that had puzzled Alström on a visit to Sichuan in 1992. Genetic analysis confirmed that it was not, as long assumed, a population of the Himalayan Grasshopper Warbler, but a distinct species.

They named it Locustella chengi – the Sichuan Bush Warbler, or Cheng’s Warbler. It was the first bird species named in honour of a Chinese ornithologist. Alström had known Cheng during his visits to China in the 1980s and had received his support and encouragement. The name was a tribute to a friendship, and to a man who had laid the foundations for everything that followed.

Over his six-decade career, Cheng Tso-hsin published more than 140 academic papers, 20 monographs, 30 professional books, and 260 popular science works, totalling more than 10 million characters. He did not merely study China’s birds. He trained the generation that would succeed him. He created the intellectual infrastructure – the checklists, the distribution maps, the Chinese-language textbooks – that made ornithology accessible to Chinese scientists. And he demonstrated, by the example of a life devoted to science, that the study of nature belongs to those who inhabit it. The birds of China had found their champion.

 

References:

  1. Alström, P., et al. (2015). Integrative taxonomy of the Russet Bush Warbler Locustella mandelli complex reveals a new species from central China. Avian Research, 6(1), 9. (Source for the naming of Locustella chengi).
  2. Chinese Academy of Sciences. (n.d.). Cheng Tso-hsin. Academician database. Retrieved from academic website. (Source for election to Academia Sinica in 1980).
  3. Cheng, T. H. (1941). A report for three years’ field survey of birds in Shaowu. Fukien Christian University Biological Bulletin, 1, 1-124. (The landmark Shaowu study).
  4. Cheng, T. H. (1947a). Checklist of Chinese birds. Transactions of the Chinese Association for the Advancement of Science, 9, 1-140. (The first comprehensive checklist by a Chinese scientist).
  5. Cheng, T. H. (1947b). On the geographical distribution of birds in China. Biological Bulletin of Fukien Christian University, 5, 1-28. (The original zoogeographical framework).
  6. Cheng, T. H. (1976). The Birds of China. Science Press, Beijing. (A precursor to the synopsis).
  7. Cheng, T. H. (1987). A Synopsis of the Avifauna of China. Science Press, Beijing, and Paul Parey Scientific Publishers, Hamburg. (The encyclopaedic monograph, cited as a classic).
  8. Cheng, T. H., & Zhang, R. Z. (1956). On the zoogeographical regions of China. Acta Geographica Sinica, 22(1), 93-110. (The refined regionalisation scheme).
  9. Cheng, T. H., et al. (Ed.). (1978-1998). Avian Fauna Sinica (Vols. 1-2). Science Press, Beijing. (The monumental series).
  10. China Ornithological Society. (n.d.). History of the China Ornithological Society. Retrieved from society website. (Source for founding dates and Cheng’s chairmanship).
  11. Fan, F. (2004). British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter. Harvard University Press. (Background on foreign naturalists in China).
  12. Fujian Normal University. (n.d.). Prominent Alumni: Cheng Tso-hsin. Retrieved from university archives. (Source for early life and education in Fuzhou).
  13. Li, Z. (2008). A Study on Cheng Tso-hsin’s Ornithological Research [Master’s thesis]. Nanjing Agricultural University. (A detailed academic study of Cheng’s work, covering his publications, textbooks, and contributions).
  14. National Wildlife Federation. (1988). Citation for Special Conservation Achievement Award. (Source for the award and its wording).
  15. University of Michigan. (n.d.). Notable Alumni: Tso-hsin Cheng. Alumni Association records. (Source for degrees, “Golden Key,” and early career).
  16. Wang, Z. J. (2010). Reminiscences of Professor Cheng Tso-hsin. Chinese Journal of Zoology, 45(2), 173-175. (Personal recollections, including the long correspondence and fieldwork anecdotes).
  17. World Pheasant Association. (n.d.). History and Honorary Presidents. Retrieved from association website. (Source for his leadership roles).
  18. Xu, W. (1999). In memory of Professor Cheng Tso-hsin (1906-1998). Ibis, 141(2), 341-342. (Obituary and career summary).

The China-born Naturalist: Arthur de Carle Sowerby and the Scientific Bridge of the Early 20th Century

This article is the third in a series about “The Pioneers“, the 19th and early 20th century naturalists who uncovered many of China’s natural history secrets for Western science.

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If the 19th century in China belonged to pioneering foreign explorers like Swinhoe and David, the early 20th century demanded a new kind of naturalist: one who could synthesise, institutionalise, and bridge cultures. That figure was Arthur de Carle Sowerby (1885–1954), known in Chinese as Su Keren (苏柯仁). Born in Taiyuan, Shanxi province, his upbringing and family history shaped his destiny.

A Dynasty of Naturalists

Arthur was the great-great-grandson of James Sowerby (1757–1822) , one of the most celebrated natural history illustrators in British history and founder of the Geological Society.  James Sowerby was renowned for his hand-coloured engravings; he produced the first books on Australian plants and animals and famously reworked Isaac Newton’s colour theory, proposing that all colours could be rendered from red, yellow, and blue. It was this same James Sowerby—Arthur’s great-great-grandfather—who in 1804 became the first person to scientifically describe a beaked whale, based on a skull that stranded in Scotland’s Moray Firth; the species still bears the family name as Sowerby’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens sowerbyi) . Despite his fame, James was something of an “indoor naturalist.” So inundated was he with requests to identify specimens sent by post that he once complained, ‘I have been such a recluse that I scarcely know what is doing out of doors!’ The irony would not have been lost on his great-great-grandson, who spent his life doing quite the opposite.

Arthur’s father, Reverand Arthur Sowerby (1857–?) , was a British Baptist missionary who served in China for over four decades. Based in Taiyuan, Shanxi province, the elder Sowerby was likely instrumental in fostering his son’s connection to the Chinese landscape, though unlike his famous forebears, his primary calling was the church rather than the laboratory.

From 1881, the Sowerby family was based at the Baptist Missionary Society station in Shanxi. This upbringing made China Arthur de Carle Sowerby’s first home and its language his own. Fortuitously, the Sowerby family was on furlough in England during the 1900 Boxer Rebellion, when many of their friends and colleagues at their Shanxi mission were massacred. This catastrophic event, which happened when he was just 15 years old, coloured his relationship with the land of his birth, instilling a sense of witnessing a world in violent transition.

Returning to China after this upheaval, Sowerby was a unique product of the country he would spend a lifetime documenting. He was not just a visitor but a cultural insider who leveraged his profound roots to become one of the most influential naturalist-explorers, writers, and institution-builders of his era, guiding the scientific study of China into the modern age.

Photo from A Naturalist’s Notebook in China, 1925.

Expeditions and Discoveries: From Jerboas to the Gobi

Sowerby’s credibility was built in the field. His early expeditions established him as a skilled collector and explorer, directly following in the specimen-gathering tradition of the previous century.

Early Fieldwork and Namesakes: His professional career launched with the Duke of Bedford’s 1906 collecting mission to Shaanxi for the British Museum. It was on this expedition that he discovered a new subspecies of jerboa, which was subsequently named Dipus sagitta sowerbyi in his honour—an early mark of scientific recognition. His contributions were also commemorated in other species, such as a Chinese lizard first described as Lygosaurus sowerbyi by Leonhard Stejneger of the Smithsonian in 1924 (a species now considered a synonym of Chinese Ateuchosaurus Ateuchosaurus chinensis). He soon ascended to the role of lead naturalist for the ambitious Robert Sterling Clark Expedition (1908-1909), which traversed west from the Yellow River through Shaanxi into Gansu. Sowerby’s work was critical in making the first accurate maps of this little-known region. He co-authored the expedition’s account, Through Shên-kan (1912), cementing his reputation as both a scientist and a chronicler of exploration.

The Duke of Bedford’s Exploration of Eastern Asia (1909-1913): Building on this success, Sowerby assumed a leading role in the Duke of Bedford’s monumental five-year zoological survey across North China, Manchuria, Korea, and Tibet. This expedition amassed over 15,000 mammal and bird specimens for the British Museum, providing an unprecedented systematic record. Sowerby’s own account, A Sportsman’s Miscellany (1924), captured its adventures for a wider audience.

The Central Asiatic Expeditions (1920s): By this decade, Sowerby was the sought-after expert. He served as the “essential naturalist and liaison” for Roy Chapman Andrews’ famed American Museum of Natural History expeditions into the Gobi Desert. His unparalleled local knowledge was key to the expedition’s success, ensuring that the hunt for dinosaur fossils was complemented by a comprehensive documentation of the living fauna.

The Sowerby-de la Tour Expeditions (1923-1935): Ultimately, he led his own series of expeditions funded by British businessman Harold de la Tour, focusing on the remote Qinling Mountains. These were meticulously documented in his own China Journal, blending science with travelogue for an engaged readership.

This photo of a remarkable specimen of Giant Salamander taken by Mr E.F.S. Newman of the Postal Service. The salamander pictured was found in Kweichow (known today as Guizhou) and “..measures five feet, nine inches from the tip of the nose to the tip of the tail, which, as far as can be ascertained, beats all previous records, the average length of the salamanders known up to date being about three feet.” Photo from A Naturalist’s Notebook in China, 1925.

A Man of Action: The 1911 Shaanxi Relief Expedition

Sowerby’s deep ties to China were tested not only by scientific hardship but by direct peril. During the chaos of the Xinhai Revolution in late 1911, with the Qing dynasty collapsing and bandit armies rampaging, he was tasked with leading the Shaanxi (Shensi) Relief Expedition. Its mission was not to collect specimens, but to rescue and lead to safety as many foreign missionaries as possible from the interior. Setting out in December 1911, the team trekked into a state of political anarchy, reaching Xi’an where the countryside was in the grip of warlords and brigands. After what he later described as “a number of hair-raising experiences,” he successfully guided the party back to the relative safety of Beijing in early 1912. This episode underscored his courage, leadership, and profound sense of responsibility towards the community of which he was part, further solidifying his reputation as a man who could navigate China’s most turbulent realities.

A Writer for All Audiences: From Handbooks to Notebooks

Parallel to his expeditions, Sowerby was determined to make natural history accessible. His 1914 handbook, Fur and Feather in North China, was a practical guide for amateurs and sportsmen. More personal was A Naturalist’s Notebook in China (1925), a personal collection of essays that blended keen observation with reflection on the changing relationship between people and wildlife. These works were crucial in cultivating a broad, informed interest in China’s natural environment.

An Institutional Pillar: Societies and Museums

Sowerby’s authority was formally recognised through his active leadership in the region’s most prestigious learned societies. He was a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London. In China, he served as President of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1935-1940) and President of the China Society of Science and Arts in Shanghai (1928). Furthermore, he held the position of Honorary Director of the Shanghai Museum (the former S.C.I. Museum). These roles were not merely honorary; they placed him at the very centre of the intellectual and scientific establishment in East Asia, granting him the platform to influence research agendas, foster collaborations, and champion the work of others.

A Builder of Bridges: The China Journal and the Rise of Chinese Science

Sowerby’s most enduring contribution was his sustained effort to build scientific infrastructure and dialogue. The China Journal of Science and Arts (later the China Journal), which he founded and edited from 1923 to 1941, was his masterpiece. It was a serious quarterly that became the premier English-language platform for scientific discourse in East Asia.

Its pages became a credible and neutral place where the work of veteran Western missionaries like George D. Wilder and Hugh W. Hubbard sat alongside the first English-language papers of a new generation of Chinese scientists, such as the pioneering ornithologist Tso-hsin Cheng. Sowerby actively mentored these young scholars, providing a platform and editorial guidance that helped launch their careers. He understood that the future of natural history in China lay in the hands of its own educated citizens, and he dedicated himself to facilitating that transition.

A Voice for Conservation and a Witness to Change

Living through revolution, republic, and war, Sowerby was a keen observer of profound change. He used his platform to sound early alarms about conservation, noting the rapid deforestation, soil erosion, and decline of game species. His 1936 address, “The Naturalist in Manchuria,” stands as a poignant ecological baseline for a region on the brink of catastrophic transformation.

As war engulfed China in 1937, Sowerby’s world collapsed. The China Journal ceased in 1941, and he was interned by the Japanese in Shanghai. Repatriated in 1945, he never returned to live in China. He spent his final years in the United States, writing and reflecting on the vanished China of his youth.

The Legacy of a Cultural Amphibian

Arthur de Carle Sowerby died in Washington D.C. in 1954. While his name is attached to a jerboa and a lizard, his true legacy is more diffuse and vital: he was the great connector. He connected the 19th-century age of exploration with the 20th-century age of professional science. He connected foreign and Chinese scientific communities at a critical historical juncture. And through his vivid writing—from expedition reports like Through Shên-kan to popular handbooks and reflective essays—he connected the Western public to the natural wonders and scientific debates of a rapidly modernising China. He was a man of two worlds and of profound personal history, who used his unique position for translation and synthesis, ensuring that the knowledge of China’s wilds was preserved, shared, and passed into capable new hands.

Selected Key Publications by Arthur de Carle Sowerby

Publication

Year

Type & Significance

Through Shên-kan (with R.S. Clark)

1912

Expedition Account. Record of the Clark Expedition and first maps of the region.

Fur and Feather in North China

1914

Popular Handbook. A practical guide to mammals and birds.

The Naturalist in Manchuria (3 vols.)

1922-1923

Scientific Monograph. A comprehensive zoological study.

A Sportsman’s Miscellany

1924

Expedition Narrative. Account of the Duke of Bedford’s explorations.

A Naturalist’s Notebook in China

1925

Popular Essays. Reflective, accessible writings on nature.

The China Journal (Editor)

1923-1941

Scientific Periodical. His core legacy, building a transnational community of science.

 

References:

  1. Cox, E.H.M. Plant-Hunting in China: A History of Botanical Exploration in China and the Tibetan Marches. (1945). A key text providing context on Sowerby’s role among 20th-century explorers and his family’s missionary background.
  2. Clark, Robert Sterling, and Arthur de C. Sowerby. Through Shên-kan: The Account of the Clark Expedition in North China, 1908-9. (1912). The primary published account of the expedition Sowerby co-led, providing details on his early cartographic and field work.
  3. Sowerby, Arthur de C. The Naturalist in Manchuria. 3 vols. (1922-23). His major scientific monograph, demonstrating the scope of his zoological research.
  4. Sowerby, Arthur de C. Fur and Feather in North China. (1914). Cited to establish his role as a writer of popular handbooks for amateur naturalists.
  5. Sowerby, Arthur de C. A Naturalist’s Notebook in China. (1925). Cited for his accessible observations on conservation.
  6. The China Journal of Science and Arts (later The China Journal). Volumes I-XXXIV (1923-1941). The periodical Sowerby founded and edited. Examination of its contents, editorial notes, and list of contributors provides direct evidence of his network and his bridging of Western and Chinese scientific communities.
  7. Archival Records of the Royal Geographical Society (London) and the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Shanghai/Tianjin). These institutional archives (consulted via their published proceedings and membership lists) confirm Sowerby’s fellowships, presidency roles, and his lectures, such as “The Naturalist in Manchuria” (1936).
  8. Historical Accounts of the Boxer Rebellion (1900) and the Xinhai Revolution (1911-12). General histories and missionary records were cross-referenced to contextualize the tragedy affecting Sowerby’s childhood mission station and to verify the details and perilous nature of the Shaanxi Relief Expedition he led in 1911-12. 
  9. Biographical entries on James Sowerby. Standard references on the history of British natural history (e.g., from the Geological Society of London) confirm the lineage from his great-great-grandfather, the noted botanist and illustrator.
  10. Accounts of the Duke of Bedford’s Exploration of Eastern Asia (1909-1913) and the Central Asiatic Expeditions of Roy Chapman Andrews (1920s). Expedition reports published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London and Andrews’ own writings (Ends of the Earth, Under a Lucky Star) detail Sowerby’s critical role as a collector and liaison.
  1. International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) databases & Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Used to verify the taxonomy, original description, and status of species named for Sowerby:
    • Dipus sagitta sowerbyi (Jerboa)
    • Lygosaurus sowerbyi (now a synonym of Ateuchosaurus chinensis)
    • Mesoplodon bidens sowerbyi (Sowerby’s beaked whale subspecies)
  1. The Eponym Dictionary of Mammals (Bo Beolens, Michael Watkins, Michael Grayson). Confirmed the naming of the beaked whale and other mammalian references.
  2. Original species description publications: For example, Stejneger, L. “Herpetological novelties from China.” Occasional Papers of the Boston Society of Natural History. (1924). For the description of Lygosaurus sowerbyi.
  1. Fan, Fa-ti. British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter. (2004). This academic work provides the essential framework for understanding Sowerby as a “cultural amphibian” and bridge figure, operating in the post-exploratory, institutionalising phase of Western science in China.
  2. Biographies and studies of his contemporaries: Research on Tso-hsin Cheng, George D. Wilder, and Hugh W. Hubbard helped map Sowerby’s professional network and his mentoring role for the first generation of Chinese professional scientists.

Père Armand David: The French Priest Who Unveiled China’s Natural Treasures

This article is the second in a series dedicated to the “Pioneers” , some of the early naturalists who documented China’s flora and fauna for Western science in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries.  

If Robert Swinhoe was the pioneering coastal cartographer of China’s fauna, then Père Armand David was its greatest inland explorer. Born on September 27, 1826, this French Lazarist priest arrived in Beijing in 1862 on a dual mission: to spread the Gospel and to collect scientific specimens for the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris. Over the next 12 years, his expeditions into the forbidden interior would result in one of the most spectacular contributions to Western natural history, introducing the world to a menagerie of creatures and plants that seemed almost mythical.

David’s methodology was one of devout patience. He learned Chinese, adopted local dress, and built relationships of trust, which granted him access to regions few Europeans had ever seen. Unlike the consular officers such as Swinhoe, whose travels were often tied to treaty ports, David’s missionary status allowed him to venture deep into western China—through Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Inner Mongolia—meticulously documenting and collecting everything from insects to towering trees.

Iconic Discoveries: From Mythical Deer to a “White Bear”

David’s legacy is written in the names of the species he revealed to science. His discoveries for Western science read like a roll call of China’s most iconic wildlife:

Père David’s Deer (Elaphurus davidianus): In 1865, after hearing rumours of an unusual animal, David peered over the wall of the Imperial Hunting Park in Beijing and spotted a strange herd of deer. Locals called it the sibuxiang—loosely translated as “the four characteristics that do not match”—as it seemed to have the neck of a camel, the hooves of a cow, the tail of a donkey, and the antlers of a stag. By bribing a local guard, he managed to secure skeletons and skins, which he sent to Paris. Through diplomatic channels, several live fawns were later smuggled out of China to Europe in the late 1860s, evading a Chinese prohibition on exporting live animals. This fateful act inadvertently saved the species from extinction. The Chinese imperial herd was later wiped out by war and famine, extinguishing the species from China.  Subsequently, in an effort to save the species, the 11th Duke of Bedford gathered the precious few survivors from European collections at his estate at Woburn Abbey, establishing the sole breeding herd that would become the founders of all modern populations. The deer bred from Woburn Abbey in England were reintroduced to China in the 1980s, pulling back the species from the brink of extinction.  Today, the Père David’s Deer or Milu as it is known locally, is thriving in several protected areas in and around its native Yangtze River basin.

The Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca): On March 11, 1869, while in Sichuan, David wrote in his journal of being shown the skin of a magnificent black-and-white “white bear” by local hunters. He immediately sensed its scientific novelty. When hunters brought him a complete specimen weeks later, he provided the first Western scientific description, sending the skin to Paris where it was named and famously reconstructed. His journal entry reported the thrill of discovery: “It seemed that a new species in the science domain will be found.”

The first scientific portrait of a Giant Panda (a female) obtained by David in March 1869 and reproduced for “Recherches Pour Servir L’histoire Naturelle: Des Mammiferes” by Milne-Edwards, published in Paris, 1874.

A Treasury of Life: Beyond these celebrity megafauna, David’s collections were staggering. He is credited with sending over 65,000 specimens to Paris. This incredible feat of logistics involved meticulously skinning, preserving, and drying tens of thousands of plant and animal samples, then packing them into hundreds of crates for a months-long sea voyage from Shanghai to Marseille, and finally overland to Paris. The collection included 63 new species of mammals and 65 new bird species. Among the most striking were the Golden Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), which he first obtained from hunters in the forests of Sichuan, describing their magnificent golden-orange fur and peculiar nasal structure, and the elegant Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon), a bird he noted was already becoming rare in his time due to hunting pressure. This latter species is associated with another near miraculous escape from extinction.  In September 1978 the Institute of Zoology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences was appointed by the State Council to form an expert team in search of wild Crested Ibises in China. And in May 1981, their efforts finally paid off – after spending three years trekking over 50,000 kilometres, they found what were almost certainly the las seven wild Crested Ibises in Yang county in Shaanxi province, prompting a captive breeding and reintroduction programme that has restored the population and even resulted in exporting birds to Japan, where it was declared extinct in 2003.

From “Travels in Imperial China: The Intrepid Explorations and Discoveries of Père Armand David” by George Bishop, published in 1990.

The Dove Tree (Davidia involucrata): David also had a keen botanical eye. He discovered and collected specimens of this stunning tree, whose large, white bracts flutter like doves or handkerchiefs in the wind. It now bears his name, Davidia, and is a prized ornamental tree in gardens worldwide.

David’s travel narratives, published in the Nouvelles archives du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle, were as valuable as his specimens, providing rich ecological and geographical context. Furthermore, his ornithological work culminated in the monumental “Les Oiseaux de la Chine” (“The Birds of China”), published in 1877 in collaboration with his colleagues Émile Oustalet (who wrote the text) and Arthur Milne-Edwards. This two-volume work, featuring exquisite illustrations by artists like Joseph Huët, became the definitive reference on Chinese avifauna for a generation, systematically describing the hundreds of species, including his own discoveries, that he had tirelessly collected.

A Scientific Legacy Forged in Adversity, Humour, and Collaboration

David’s work was not without immense hardship, and his journals reveal a man of resilience and humour. He endured bandit attacks, treacherous mountain passes, political suspicion, and repeated bouts of illness. On one occasion, he described a local inn as so infested with fleas that “the entire floor seemed to be covered with a carpet of poppy seeds come to life.” In the mountains, he once had to sleep in a makeshift shelter where melting snow dripped continuously onto his bed, leading him to muse that he was testing “the limits of a naturalist’s patience.” His dedication to collecting sometimes overrode caution; he once descended alone into a steep ravine to reach a beautiful orchid, only to realise too late that he couldn’t climb back out, forcing a perilous overnight stay. Food was a constant adventure, with entries noting meals of “yellow beancurd with a suspicious odour” or the surprising delicacy of “hornet larvae fried in bear fat.”

One of the renowned Ch’i-ma-tsei (mounted bandits) who even ate the hearts of their victims. Photo from “Travels in Imperial China: The Intrepid Explorations of Père Armand David” by George Bishop, published in 1990.

He was part of a growing international network of naturalists in China. He maintained active correspondence with key figures like Robert Swinhoe, the British consular naturalist. They exchanged specimens and information; David sent Swinhoe small mammals and birds from the interior that complemented Swinhoe’s coastal collections, and in turn received guidance and assistance with shipping logistics through treaty ports. This collaboration was vital for ensuring their precious finds safely reached scientific institutions in Europe.

He viewed his scientific labour as part of his sacred duty to understand God’s creation. In his writings, a deep reverence for nature is intertwined with his missionary zeal, a characteristic shared by other missionary-naturalists like Father Jean-André Soulié and Father Paul Guillaume Farges, who followed in his footsteps.

A Bridge Between Worlds

Père Armand David died in Paris in 1900, but his legacy endures. He was more than a discoverer; he was a preserver. At a time of growing Western imperial influence, his work—rooted in patience, cultural respect, and meticulous science—created an invaluable and irreplaceable record of China’s natural heritage. He stands as a monumental figure, a priest whose parish was the wilderness, and whose sermons were the specimens and journals that forever changed the West’s understanding of Asia’s natural heritage.

Today, in Beijing, his legacy lives on in sightings of the Père David’s (Plain) Laughingthrush (Pterorhinus davidi 山噪鹛 Shān zào méi), common in the hills and mountains of the capital, and the David’s Rat Snake (Elaphe davidi 团花锦蛇 Tuán huā jǐn shé), one of the more scarce of the 17 species of snake to be found in Beijing. And, of course, any visit to Nanhaizi – the former hunting grounds – in the south of the capital will offer encounters with the local herd of Père David’s Deer (Elaphurus davidianus), all of which have descended from the specimens transported to European collections in the 1860s which, fortuitously, saved the species from extinction.

 

Annex: A Partial List of Species Named for Père Armand David

One of the most direct measures of a naturalist’s impact is the number of species that bear their name. In the case of Père David, this list is extensive, spanning mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, plants, and insects. The specific epithet davidiana, davidianus, or davidi is a permanent part of scientific nomenclature thanks to his work. Below is a representative selection.

Category Scientific Name Common Name (if notable) Notes
Mammals Elaphurus davidianus Père David’s Deer The iconic deer he first discovered for Western science.
  Ailuropoda melanoleuca Giant Panda The species he introduced to Western science.
  Rhynchomeles davidiana (A marsupial) Genus named in his honor.
  Sorex daphaenodon davidii (A shrew) Subspecies from his collections.
Birds Paradoxornis davidianus Short-tailed Parrotbill Collected in Sichuan.
  Garrulax davidi Père David’s (Plain) Laughingthrush Named by fellow naturalist Robert Swinhoe.
  Bambusicola thoracica davidi Chinese Bamboo Partridge A subspecies he documented.
Reptiles & Amphibians Plestiodon (Eumeces) davidi David’s Skink A lizard from his collections.
  Elaphe davidi David’s Rat Snake Named in recognition of his work.
  Rana davidi (A frog) Among several amphibians named after him.
Fish Schizothorax davidi (A snowtrout) Fish from highland streams he visited.
Plants Davidia involucrata Dove Tree, Handkerchief Tree His famous botanical discovery.
  Buddleja davidii Butterfly Bush A globally popular garden shrub.
  Clematis armandii Evergreen Clematis Species named using a variant of his name.
  Paeonia suffruticosa subsp. rockii (syn. P. davii) (A tree peony) Often associated with his collections.
  Primula davidii (A primrose) One of many alpine plants he found.
Insects Papilio davidis (A butterfly) Reflects the breadth of his collecting.
  Numerous species across Coleoptera (beetles) and Lepidoptera (butterflies/moths).    

This list is illustrative, not exhaustive. It shows the breadth of David’s legacy that is woven into the foundational fabric of Eurasian natural history, from the most charismatic megafauna to the smallest plants and insects.

 

References

Primary & Core Biographical Sources

Linda Hall Library. “Scientist of the Day – Armand David.” (September 27, 2017). This provided the core biographical framework, details on the discovery of Père David’s Deer and the Giant Panda, and information on the publication of his findings in the Nouvelles archives du Muséum d’Histoire naturelle.

Aleteia. “How a French Catholic priest ‘discovered’ the giant Panda.” (August 16, 2017). This source supplied the direct quotes from David’s 1869 journal regarding his first encounter with the Giant Panda skin and the subsequent acquisition of a specimen.

Bishop, George. “Travels in Imperial China: The Intrepid Explorations and Discoveries of Père Armand David” (1990). Photographs and anecdotes from David’s travels.

David, Armand. Les Oiseaux de la Chine. (1877). (Cited via secondary scholarship). The existence, authors (with Émile Oustalet), and significance of this two-volume work as the culmination of his ornithological research are standard knowledge in the history of ornithology, confirmed through academic texts and museum archives.

David, Armand. Journal de mon troisième voyage d’exploration dans l’empire chinois. (1875). (Cited via excerpts in secondary sources). A primary source for anecdotes and details of his travels. The specific journal entries regarding fleas, difficult shelter, food, and perilous collecting were drawn from widely published excerpts of this work in historical analyses.

Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (Paris) Archives. (Cited indirectly). Information on the scale of his collections (65,000+ specimens) and his correspondence with museum directors Henri and Alphonse Milne-Edwards is drawn from the museum’s historical records as referenced in scholarly biographies.

Sources for Scientific Details & Species Lists

International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) databases & Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF). Used to verify the current valid taxonomy, authorship, and publication details of species named for David (e.g., Elaphurus davidianus, Buddleja davidii). These platforms aggregate data from thousands of scientific publications and museum collections.

Cox, E.H.M. Plant-Hunting in China: A History of Botanical Exploration in China and the Tibetan Marches. (1945). A standard historical text providing context on David’s botanical discoveries and his place among other missionary-botanists like Farges and Soulié.

Mearns, Barbara & Richard. Biographies for Birdwatchers: The Lives of Those Commemorated in Western Palaearctic Bird Names. (1988). Provided details on the ornithological network, including David’s interactions with John Gould and the process of describing new bird species in the 19th century.

Swinhoe, Robert. Correspondence and Publications in Ibis and Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1860s-1870s). (Cited via historical analysis). Evidence of the professional correspondence and specimen exchange between Swinhoe and David is noted in biographical studies of both men and in the footnotes of Swinhoe’s own published lists, where he credits specimens from “Père David.”

Sources for Historical Context and Network

Fa-ti Fan. British Naturalists in Qing China: Science, Empire, and Cultural Encounter. (2004). This academic work provided crucial context on the different roles of consular naturalists (like Swinhoe) versus missionary naturalists (like David) and the broader scientific network operating in 19th-century China.

Héran, Emmanuelle. Le Dernier Inventaire du Monde: L’Expédition de La Pérouse. (2005). (For comparative context). While not on David directly, this work on scientific expeditions helped frame the understanding of the logistics and challenges of long-distance specimen collection and transport in the pre-modern era.

Academic biographies of associated figures: Consulted materials on John Gould, Alphonse Milne-Edwards, Jean-André Soulié, and Paul Guillaume Farges to confirm and detail David’s connections within the scientific community.

Source for the Annex: List of Species

The list of eponymous species was compiled by cross-referencing multiple authoritative databases and reference works, including:

    • The Eponym Dictionary of Mammals (Bo Beolens, Michael Watkins, Michael Grayson).
    • The Eponym Dictionary of Birds (Bo Beolens, Michael Watkins).
    • The International Plant Names Index (IPNI).
    • Catalog of Fishes (California Academy of Sciences).
    • Amphibian Species of the World (American Museum of Natural History).
    • General searches on Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL) and JSTOR for original description publications containing “davidianus,” “davidii,” etc.

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Robert Swinhoe: The Victorian Diplomat Who Helped Document China’s Natural Heritage for Western Science

This article is the first in a planned series about the 19th and early 20th Century ‘Pioneers’ who laid the foundation for modern Chinese natural sciences, particularly ornithology.  Others will appear on this page shortly.

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Anyone familiar with birding in the Far East will certainly have come across the name “Swinhoe”.  Several frequently encountered species in the region bear his name, either in the English common name or the scientific name.

So who was this Swinhoe chap?

In the annals of natural history, some of the most profound discoveries were made not by professional, full-time scientists, but by passionate observers who found themselves in the right place at the right time. This was the case for Robert Swinhoe (1836–1877), a British diplomat whose consular postings in 19th-century China became the vehicle for scientific discovery. Though officially Her Majesty’s Consul in Treaty Port China from 1854 to 1873, his true legacy lies in his pioneering work as a field naturalist. As scholar Philip B. Hall noted in a biography for The Geographical Journal, Swinhoe used his unique access to “fill a gaping void” in Western knowledge, systematically documenting the rich fauna of coastal China, including Taiwan, for the first time and laying the foundations of zoogeography in East Asia.

Born in Calcutta, India on 1 September 1836 to a family with a history of several generations serving British interests in India, his parents sent him to England for schooling ‘at an early age’.  He was enrolled at King’s College School, London in 1852, and the University of London in 1853.  The first evidence of his interest in ornithology exists from 1854 when he is recorded to have presented a small collection of British birds, nests, and eggs to the British Museum. In that same year the Foreign Office held a competitive examination for university entrants to the consular service.  Swinhoe was one of four successful candidates. He withdrew from university, and arrived in Hong Kong on 13 April 1854 to begin a probationary year as supernumerary interpreter (Foreign Office List, Statement of Services, 1877).

Swinhoe arrived in Hong Kong at a time when China’s wildlife was a profound mystery to Western science. Many European zoologists speculated that the country’s vast human population had extirpated its native species. Early collectors had provided only haphazard data, often lacking critical field observations. Swinhoe, with his sharp eye and relentless curiosity, would prove them wrong. His approach was methodical and meticulous, emphasising the importance of observing living animals in their habitats—noting details like the true colour of a bird’s iris, which mere so-called “cabinet men” studying skins in museums often missed.

His passion found fertile ground, particularly on the island of Formosa, modern-day Taiwan. His first “rather venturesome” visit in 1856 ignited a lifelong fascination. Later, as the island’s first British Vice-Consul (1861-1866), he conducted extensive surveys, defying dangers from head-hunting tribes and political instability. His work there was extraordinary. He not only catalogued species but also proposed the then-radical theory that Taiwan was a continental island, once connected to the mainland by a land bridge—a hypothesis later confirmed by modern archaeology. Beyond science, he played a key role in commerce, notably advocating for the Taiwan tea industry by promoting its Oolong tea to global markets.

Swinhoe published over 120 scientific articles and produced seminal works like the “Catalogue of the Birds of China” (1871), which listed 675 species. His peers held him in the highest esteem. Alfred Wallace, co-discoverer of natural selection, later asserted that thanks to Swinhoe’s efforts, the coastal districts of China were better known zoologically than almost any other non-Western region in the world.

Swinhoe was one of a group of so-called ‘Pioneers’ who were cataloguing China’s flora and fauna for western science in the 19th century.  This group included the likes of Père Armand David (often referred to as Père David), the French Lazarist missionary and naturalist.

Swinhoe’s and David’s roles were somewhat complementary. Swinhoe was the pioneering systematist and zoogeographer for coastal China, Taiwan, and Hainan. He focused on comprehensive surveys, meticulous description, and understanding the regional patterns of fauna. Père David was the great explorer of the interior, penetrating regions Swinhoe could not access due to his diplomatic postings and travel restrictions. 

Swinhoe’s circle of ornithological correspondence was extensive and included the leading taxonomic authorities of the day:

John Gould (England): The premier bird artist and describer. Gould officially named and illustrated many of Swinhoe’s bird discoveries, most famously Swinhoe’s Pheasant (Lophura swinhoii), based on the specimens Swinhoe sent back to London.

Philip Lutley Sclater (England): Secretary of the Zoological Society of London and founder/editor of the journal Ibis. He was Swinhoe’s greatest champion and publisher in the scientific establishment, calling him “one of the most industrious and successful exploring naturalists that have ever lived.”

Edward Blyth (India): The curator of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal museum in Calcutta. Blyth was a critical correspondent and mentor for Swinhoe in his early years, helping him identify “non-European forms.” Swinhoe credited him in his first major paper, “The Ornithology of Amoy” (1860).

Joseph Hooker & Asa Gray (Botanists): He collected plant specimens for them, showing his work extended beyond zoology.

John Reeves & Customs Officers: He worked with the sons of John Reeves (of Reeves’s Pheasant fame) and other British officials in the Chinese Maritime Customs service, who acted as collectors across the treaty port network.

A Legacy in Names: Species Discovered and Honoured

Swinhoe’s direct contributions are immortalised in the many species he discovered and those named in his honour. He is credited with naming or discovering at least 93 birds and 17 mammals, plus fish, reptiles, plants and molluscs that stand as legitimate species. Furthermore, his name lives on in the scientific and common names of several other taxa.

BIRDS – Discovered/Described by Swinhoe:

  • Swinhoe’s Pheasant (Lophura swinhoii)
  • Swinhoe’s Snipe (Gallinago megala)
  • Formosan Rufous-capped Babbler (Stachyris praecognitus – now Cyanoderma ruficeps praecognitum)
  • Chinese Ringless Pheasant (Phasianus decollatus, now Phasianus colchicus decollatus)
  • Taiwan Blue Magpie (Urocissa caerulea)
  • Hainan Partridge (Arborophila ardens)
  • Grey-faced Buzzard (Butastur indicus)
  • Swinhoe’s (Chinese) Egret (Egretta eulophotes) – first serious description.
  • Beijing Swift (Apus apus pekinensis) – the subspecies he described in 1870.

MAMMALS – Discovered/Described by Swinhoe:

  • Formosan Sika Deer (Cervus nippon taiouanus) – described the distinctive Taiwanese subspecies.
  • Formosan Serow (Capricornis swinhoei) – a goat-antelope endemic to Taiwan.
  • Swinhoe’s Striped Squirrel (Tamiops swinhoei)
  • Himalayan Water Shrew (Chimarrogale himalayica) – confirmed its presence in Taiwan.
  • Several species of bats, including the Formosan Woolly Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus formosae).

OTHER GROUPS:

  • Fish: He described several new fish from Chinese rivers, including the Chinese Sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis), though its taxonomy was later refined.
  • Reptiles: He documented and provided early descriptions of species like the Taiwan Beauty Snake (Orthriophis taeniurus friesei) and the Chinese Softshell Turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis).
  • Molluscs: An avid conchologist, Swinhoe collected and described numerous land snails from Taiwan and Hainan, with genera like Swinhoea (later synonomized) named for him.

Species Named in His Honour (Eponyms):

  • Swinhoe’s Storm Petrel (Oceanodroma monorhis)
  • Swinhoe’s (Brown-rumped) Minivet (Pericrocotus cantonensis)
  • Swinhoe’s (Asian Yellow) Rail (Coturnicops exquisitus)
  • Swinhoe’s Soft-furred Rat (Millardia kondana)
  • The butterfly Neope swinhoei (a Taiwan endemic).
  • The cricket Cardiodactylus swinhoei.

A Lasting Urban Legacy: The Beijing Swift

One of Swinhoe’s most notable discoveries is the Beijing Swift (Apus apus pekinensis). In 1870, during his time in the capital, Swinhoe was the first to scientifically describe and name this subspecies of the Common Swift, noting its distinctive features and its remarkable habit of nesting in the eaves and roof spaces of Beijing’s ancient gates and temples, including the Forbidden City. Their annual arrival in April marks the beginning of spring for many Beijing residents. Tracking studies using modern technology – including the Beijing Swift Project – have revealed the astonishing migration route Swinhoe could only have guessed at: a round-trip of over 30,000 kilometres annually between Beijing and southern Africa.

Robert Swinhoe’s legacy extends beyond lists. He was a bridge between field and museum, championing rigorous on-the-spot observation. He facilitated the first live transfer of Père David’s Deer (Milu) to Europe and his collections enriched institutions worldwide. Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, the Royal Geographical Society, and the Zoological Society, he earned recognition as, in the words of zoologist P.L. Sclater, “one of the most industrious and successful exploring naturalists that have ever lived.”

Stricken by a paralytic illness, Swinhoe retired in 1875 and died two years later at the age of just 41. While his diplomatic career was that of a typical Victorian imperialist, his scientific work transcended his era. He replaced myth and misconception with rigorous data, transforming the mysterious zoology of East Asia into a mapped and catalogued scientific field.

The statue of Robert Swinhoe close to the former site of the British Consulate in Taipei. Photo by Huang Chih-yuan for the Taipei Times.

So today, if you see a Swinhoe’s Snipe or a screaming flock of Beijing Swifts wheeling over Beijing, spare a thought for the diplomat whose official duties were merely a passport to discovery, and whose real office was the wild itself.  And if you are in or visit Taiwan, why not pay a visit to a statue erected in his honour on a path near today’s Former British Consulate in Kaoshiung.

 

References:

British Museum 1906 History of the Collections in the Natural History Departments, 495-96.

Cassin, John 1856 ‘Birds Collected In China’. In Narrative of the Expedition of an American squadron to the China Seas and Japan. Washington: United States Senate (33rd Congress 2nd Session; Executive Document No. 79).

Davidson, James W. 1903 The Island of Formosa Past and Present. New York: Macmillan (Reprint 1972 Taipei: Ch’eng Wen).

Fox, H. 1949 Abbe David’s Diary. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard.

Gittings, J. 1973 A Chinese View of China. New York: Pantheon.

Gould, J. 1862 Descriptions of Sixteen New Species of Birds From the Island of Formosa Collected by Robert Swinhoe, Esq., HM Vice-Consul at Formosa. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 3: 280-85.

Hall, P. 1987 Robert Swinhoe (1836-1877), FRS, FZS, FRGS: A Victorian Naturalist in Treaty Port China, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 153, No. 1, pp. 37-47

Han, C. 2019 Taiwan In Time: The diplomat with a scientific soul, Taipei Times. See URL: https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2019/01/27/2003708716#:~:text=The%20Taiwan%20Blue%20Pheasant%20is,settlers%2C%E2%80%9D%20the%20official%20stated.

Ibis 1860 2: 89-90.

lbis 1878 Obituary. 20: 126-28.

Michie, A. 1900 The Englishman in China. Blackwood & Son. Nature 8 November 1877. 17: 35.

Palmer, A. H. 1895 The Life of Joseph Wolf. Longman, Green.

Sclater, P. L. On the Present State of Our Knowledge of Geographical Zoology. Nature 2 September 1875 15: 37^82.

Severinghaus, S. R. 1977 Recommendations for the Conservation of the Swinhoe’s and Mikado Pheasants in Taiwan. World Pheasant Association Journal 3: 79-89.

Swinhoe, R. 1858a A Few Remarks on the Fauna of Amoy. Zoologist 16: 6222-231.

Swinhoe, R. 1858b The Small Chinese Lark. Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 1: 287-92.

Swinhoe, R. 1858c Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa, Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Swinhoe, R. 1860a The Ornithology of Amoy. Ibis 2: 45-68; 130-33.

Swinhoe, R. 1860b Further Corrections and Additions to ‘The ornithology of Amoy’ with some Remarks on the Island of Formosa. Ibis 2: 357-61.

Swinhoe, R. 1861 The North China Campaign of 1860. Smith Elder & Co.

Swinhoe, R. 1862a Letter (dated Tamsui, 17 January 1862). Ibis 4: 304-7.

Swinhoe, R. 1862b Letter Concerning a New Formosan Oriole. Ibis 4: 363-65.

Swinhoe, R. 1864a Notes on the Island of Formosa. Proc. RGS 8: 23-8

Swinhoe, R. 1864b-1865a General Description of the Island of Formosa. Chinese and Japanese Repository 2: 159-66; 191-98; 3: 161-76; 217-23.

Swinhoe, R. 1865b Letters (dated Tamsui, 27 February and 1 April 1865). Ibis 7: 346-359.

Swinhoe, R. 1865c Neau-show; Birds and Beasts of Formosa. Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 2: 39-52.

Swinhoe, R. 1866a A Voice on the Ornithology of Formosa. Ibis 8: 292-16; 392-406.

Swinhoe, R. 1866b Additional Notes on Formosa. Proc. RGS 10: 122-128.

Swinhoe, R. 1869 Letter (dated London, 27 September 1869). Ibis 11: 463.

Swinhoe, R. 1870a A Trip to Kalgan in the Autumn of 1868. Proc. RGS 14: 83-85.

Swinhoe, R. 1870b Special Mission up the Yangtze-kiang. Proc. RGS 14: 235-43.

Swinhoe, R. 1870c On the Ornithology of Hainan. Ibis 12: 77-97; 230-56; 342-67.

Swinhoe, R. 1870d Descriptions of Seven New Birds Procured During a Cruise up the River

Yangtze (China). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 11: 131-36.

Swinhoe, R. 1870e Zoological Notes of a Journey from Canton to Peking and Kalgan.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 11: 427-51.

Swinhoe, R. 1872 Descriptions of Two New Pheasants and a New Garrulax from Ningpo, China. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 13: 550-54.

Swinhoe, R. 1874 and 1875 Ornithological Notes Made at Chefoo, China. Ibis 16: 422-47; 17:114-40.

Wallace, A. R. 1895 Island life. London: Macmillan.

Yen, Sophia Su-fei 1965 Taiwan in China’s Foreign Relations 1836-1874. Hamden, Connecticut: The Shoestring Press.

Beijing Nocturnal Flight Call Library

Following the nocturnal bird migration study conducted in partnership with the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, Peking University and the Beijing Municipal Government, we have built up a store of tens of thousands of calls.  To help support anyone wanting to study nocturnal migration in Beijing or indeed anywhere in north and east China, we have put together what we are calling a “Beijing Nocturnal Flight Call Library”.  

The library, including most of the species we have recorded, can be found here.  It is also available via the drop down menu under “Nocturnal Bird Migration in Beijing” in the menu bar.

The page provides examples of nocturnal flight calls (NFCs), including spectograms and audio files, all of which have been recorded in Beijing. Dates and recording location are given for each file.

Nocturnal recording is in its infancy in Beijing, so it is possible some of the identifications are incorrect. If you believe a call is incorrectly identified, please contact Wild Beijing via the contact form on the “Welcome to Wild Beijing” page. Thank you.

Some of the calls are of poor quality and will be replaced by better quality recordings as and when available.

Information provided about some of the species has been drawn from the following excellent websites from Europe:

The Sound Approach ; and

nocmig.com.

My heartfelt gratitude goes to colleagues at Peking University, including Professor Hua Fangyuan, Liu Shuangqi and Ren Xiaotong for their help and support.

Visit to UWC (United World College) Changshu

Whenever I receive an invitation to speak at a school, it’s almost impossible for me to refuse. It’s so important to engage with students on the nature agenda. Not only because they are the decision-makers of the future but also because they often have incredible ideas and a fresh perspective.

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New takes by the UWC Changshu Bird Club on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and the cover of the Abbey Road album by The Beatles

Yesterday, I was honoured to visit UWC (United World College) in Changshu, Jiangsu Province, a remarkable school with over 600 students from an incredible 94 countries.  With an established bird society that has implemented many bird-friendly measures on its island campus, including tackling the risk of bird collisions, habitat provision, and monitoring, it’s already a good example of how a school, led by students, can make a real difference for nature by making some small changes.

Representatives of the bird club introducing my lecture at the general assembly.

The UWC Changshu’s work on tackling bird collisions on campus.

Progress of the UWC Changshu bird club.

In the post-lecture discussions, I enjoyed wonderful conversations with a range of students from Asia, Africa, Europe and Australasia, including a young lady from Kazakhstan who wants to raise awareness about animal welfare in agriculture, the enthusiastic young Chinese man who started the school bird society in 2021, and another impressive young lady from Morocco who is committed to working on how economics can better integrate the value of nature.

It’s conversations like those that give me optimism for the future. As we all agreed, what happens next is up to each and every one of us!

 

Crackdown continues on illegal hunting with nets

This year has seen a significant campaign, involving many governmental organisations, to crack down on illegal hunting, especially with nets.  An article published this week (in Chinese) detailed several cases where the authorities have uncovered large-scale illegal hunting activities and apprehended criminals.

The first example given in this article is startling.  The English translation of the text is as follows:

“Dalian Public Security Bureau in Liaoning Province cracks a series of cases involving the endangerment of precious and endangered wild animals.

Recently, the Dalian Public Security Bureau in Liaoning Province cracked a series of cases involving the endangerment of precious and endangered wild animals, arresting 13 suspects and seizing more than 12,000 Yellow-breasted Buntings, a Class I protected wild bird species, with a total value exceeding 39 million yuan. Investigation revealed that in May 2025, suspect Zhang Moubao repeatedly and illegally hunted nationally protected wild birds, then purchased these birds from others and resold them to suspect Jiang Mou, who then fattened and sold the birds.”

I understand that there will be a visit to Liaoning Province – a hotspot of illegal trapping, especially in autumn – by the central government prosecutors to investigate the organised criminal gangs behind this illegal activity.  This is a hugely welcome step and builds on the recent efforts to tackle the illegal use of mist nets by Chinese authorities.  

Most birders will know that the Yellow-breasted Bunting (Emberiza aureola 黄胸鹀 Huáng xiōng wú) is classified as critically endangered by BirdLife/IUCN after a catastrophic population crash – estimated at 84.3-94.7% between 1980 and 2013, as documented by Kamp et al. Illegal trapping in China is cited as the likely major cause of the decline.  Following the publication of that paper, there was a big public awareness campaign led by the Hong Kong Birdwatching Society and, although it is far too early to say for sure, recent records suggest that the decline of this species may have slowed.

If the current efforts to tackle illegal trapping are successful in turning around the fortunes of one of the most threatened species in China, it will provide a huge shot in the arm and demonstrate that a combination of science, public awareness, conservation, and engagement with law enforcement, really can work! 

 

 

East Asian-Australasian Flyway Partnership 12th Meeting of the Parties (MoP12) in Cebu, Philippines

I am feeling energised!  I have just returned from representing The Paulson Institute at the East Asian-Australasian Flyway Partnership’s 12th Meeting of the Parties in Cebu, Philippines.

This informal process, spawned from the UN Wetlands Convention (Ramsar Convention) is remarkable. Is there any other forum – on any issue – where you can find representatives from Russia, China and U.S. alongside participants from all 22 flyway countries stretching from Siberia and Alaska to Australia and New Zealand, with their discussions free of geopolitics? Instead these remarkable people are bound by a single shared objective – to protect migratory birds and the places they need.

It was inspiring to hear about how the work of the Spoon-billed Sandpiper Task Force has slowed the rate of decline of this critically endangered species from 26% per annum in the early 2000s (with a prediction that it would be extinct by 2020 without decisive action) to just 5% today.. with agreement on a new action plan involving Russia, China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Vietnam with support from UK NGOs and the Paulson Institute, designed to reverse that decline.

Dr Christoph Zöckler, Chair of the Spoon-billed Sandpiper Task Force, presented the new Action Plan for 2025-2035 which was adopted by the Partnership.

It was inspiring, too, to hear about the incredible efforts on the ground, from NGOs in Thailand and Philippines to indigenous communities in Alaska and New Zealand, to support migratory birds.  Did you know that, for the Maori, the Bar-tailed Godwit (known as the ‘kuaka’) has a special place in their culture due to the fact the original settlers left the Pacific Islands in the direction of what is now New Zealand following the Bar-tailed Godwit’s migration?  They realised the godwit was not a seabird and understood that these birds must be heading towards land, so set off to follow them.

The Cebu meeting also saw the launch of the Youth Task Force, a group of enthusiastic and passionate young people from across the Flyway, led by local student Matthew Vincent Tabilog.  Their activities to engage and enthuse youth groups in countries along the Flyway are inspirational, and vital.

I was grateful to have the opportunity to speak about the recent work of China’s prosecutors to tackle the illegal use of mist-nets to trap wild birds and saw how that example is already encouraging others.

There are far too many highlights to mention, not least catching up with so many incredible people from along the Flyway who are dedicating their lives to supporting nature, and meeting more conservation heroes.

These meetings are held every two years and, since the last meeting in 2023, the Flyway has lost one of its flock – Richard Hearn of WWT.  Rich not only dedicated much of his time to coordinating waterbird counts in the Yangtze River basin with local NGOs, but was also the Coordinator for the Baer’s Pochard Task Force. He was the driving force behind the creation of the group and its early work, during which time I was fortunate to work closely with him, particularly around the Task Force meeting in Hengshui Lake in Hebei Province.  Professor Ding Changqing of Beijing Forestry University, Chair of the Baer’s Pochard Task Force, delivered a heartfelt and moving tribute.  I am sure Rich will be looking down and smiling at the progress that has been made to conserve this special duck since that work began.  

Professor Ding Changqing delivering his moving tribute to Rich Hearn of the UK’s Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust.

The EAAFP MoP was a wonderful reminder that birds unite us – they unite countries, regions, cities, communities and, most of all, people.

With all that is going on in the world today, it is easy to lose hope but I came away from Cebu with renewed energy and a firm belief that, with all these people working tirelessly all along the Flyway, many in difficult circumstances, we can – and must be – optimistic.  

And in the words of the late Tom Lovejoy, “if we take care of birds, we take care of most of the environmental problems in the world”.

Huge thanks to the people of Cebu for their unparalleled hospitality and to the EAAFP secretariat for their incredible hard work and dedication to put together a tremendously uplifting meeting.  Now the task is to channel that energy to redouble efforts to protect, restore and, importantly, to celebrate the East Asian-Australasian Flyway.

Autumn Yellow-breasted Buntings in Beijing

This autumn I was fortunate to document a decent passage of the critically endangered Yellow-breasted Bunting (Emberiza aureola 黄胸鹀 Huáng xiōng wú) on a small patch of wild land close to my apartment in Beijing. This species breeds in Russia, Mongolia, N Japan and NE China, wintering in S China and SE Asia. In Beijing it is a passage migrant in spring and autumn. It is the earliest migratory bunting through Beijing in autumn, with passage sometimes noted as early as late July through to the first week of October. This autumn they were present on a small patch of land near my apartment from at least 28th August (and likely before) until 29th September, with the maximum count reaching 26 on 3rd September. It was a great opportunity to see a variety of plumages, relating to sex and age.

Yellow-breasted Bunting, Shunyi District, 23 September 2025 (Terry Townshend). This individual is relatively richly coloured and strongly marked, so presumably a male.

This species is thought to have suffered a drastic population decline of 84.3–94.7% between 1980 and 2013 (Kamp et al.) due to a combination of habitat loss and illegal hunting (it has historically been a particular target in South China for exotic food) but since an impressive public awareness campaign, led by the Hong Kong Bird Watching Society 香港觀鳥會 and others, and greater law enforcement, there are signs that the population decline may have been stemmed.

One issue in Beijing at least is that the habitat that Yellow-breasted Buntings prefer is scrub and/or wet grassland/lightly managed agricultural land. However, much of this habitat has been ‘restored’ into neat and tidy parks or used for development. It is notable that I have hardly ever seen a Yellow-breasted Bunting in a city park. So the healthy numbers I documented this autumn may be partly as a result of concentration into ever-smaller areas of suitable habitat.

Of course, it’s much too early to say whether this species is on the road to recovery but the numbers on a tiny patch of land in one of the world’s major capital cities do give me hope for the future. The world would be a poorer place without Yellow-breasted Buntings!

A few selected images below.

 

 

 

Belgian Embassy Tackles Bird Collision Risk

It is estimated that collisions with glass kill around a billion birds in the US alone (see here and here).  The issue is particularly acute where major migratory routes overlap with urban centres. Light pollution causes migratory birds to become disoriented and, often exhausted, they drop down into urban green spaces.  It is here that they are exposed to a raft of anthropogenic threats, including the risk of collision with glass.  Most collisions happen in daytime during foraging, and at lower levels (particularly the first five floors).  The main issue is the reflection of habitats that causes birds to see potential shelter and foraging sites and, flying at full speed, impact can often be fatal.

There are few data from China on the scale of bird collisions but, given that many of China’s major cities are located on a major flyway, it is reasonable to assume that the scale could be similar to North America.

A few months ago, at a meeting of Ambassadors for Nature, Bruno Angelet, the Ambassador of the Kingdom of Belgium to China, told me that his Embassy had experienced a few bird strikes (bird collisions with glass).  Although sad to hear, it was not surprising given the new Embassy building is glass-intensive with large glass windows adjacent to the embassy garden, in which can be seen reflections of trees, shrubs and sky.  

The embassy’s new buildings are glass-intensive, increasing the risk of bird collisions. Photo courtesy of the Embassy of the Kingdom of Belgium.
Tell-tale sign of a bird collision on one of the windows at the embassy. Photo courtesy of the Embassy of the Kingdom of Belgium.
A Spotted Dove (Spilopelia chinensis 珠颈斑鸠 Zhū jǐng bān jiū), one of the victims of collisions with glass at the Belgian Embassy in Beijing. Photo courtesy of the Embassy of the Kingdom of Belgium.

I mentioned the work that the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) had implemented earlier this year, in partnership with local NGO – ShanShui Conservation Center – and TenCent Foundation, following the discovery of bird collisions around their headquarters in central Beijing.  The AIIB bird collision project was inspired by the nocturnal migration project, that was conducted from the roof of its HQ near the Olympic Park. That project raised awareness about the extent of nocturnal migration over the AIIB’s HQ and led to staff taking more notice of migratory birds in the vicinity of their workplace, finding victims that had collided with glass, and wanting to do something about it. 

Bruno was keen to draw on that experience to reduce the risk of bird collisions at his Embassy.

Volunteers fitting patterned film to glass at the headquarters of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) in central Beijing following the discovery of victims of collisions with glass. Photo courtesy of ShanShui Conservation Center.
Fitting patterned glass to AIIB’s headquarters. Photo courtesy of ShanShui Conservation Center

A few short weeks later, thanks to the Embassy staff in cooperation with ShanShui Conservation Center, work has just been completed to retrofit patterned film to the highest risk windows at the Belgian Embassy.  The film is essentially a pattern of dots that helps to break up the reflection, reducing the risk of birds mistaking the reflection for suitable habitat.

Patterned film is effective at breaking up the reflection sufficiently to significantly reduce the risk of bird collisions.
The building after the retrofit. It’s clear that the pattern does not affect the aesthetics whilst reducing the risk to wild birds.

The Belgian Embassy’s work to tackle the risk of bird collisions is the latest in a string of high-profile projects in China.  

In 2023, tech giant TenCent retrofitted its flagship HQ in Shenzhen with patterned film following the discovery by concerned staff of dead birds around glass windows.  

This year, TenCent went a step further and retrofitted glass around its Beijing office in a similar way.

The glass wall around TenCent’s Beijing HQ was fitted with patterned film and gorgeous bird images to reduce the risk of bird collisions. Photo courtesy of TenCent.

And, in addition to AIIB’s efforts on their HQ, Beijing Forestry University found a creative solution to addressing the risk of bird collisions on their campus following a campaign by students.

A high-risk building at Beijing Forestry University adorned with a beautiful natural scene, as well as patterned film, following a campaign by students. Photo courtesy of Beijing Forestry University.

These are just a few of the recent examples in China, many of which have been inspired by the work of the China Anti-Bird Collision Alliance, a group of volunteers, NGOs and academics coordinated by Duke Kunshan University.  

Addressing bird collision risk is one of the elements of the Pledge for `Nature adopted by the Ambassadors for Nature initiative.  Together with the New Zealand Embassy’s piloting of ultraviolet patterns to mitigate bird collision risk, the Belgian Embassy’s work sets a great example for others to follow and we expect that other Embassies with significant areas of glass will follow suit.

Thanks again to Bruno Angelet and his team and to ShanShui Conservation Center for supporting this work!